On the tombstone beneath which Swift's remains lie, the following notable inscription, written at his own request, is carved:
Swift has sailed into his rest;
Savage indignation there
Cannot lacerate his Breast.
Imitate him if you dare,
World-Besotted Traveler; he
Served human liberty.Swift's Epitaph
In two phrases — saeva indignatio (savage indignation) and virilis libertas (courageous liberty) — Swift himself defines the two main points around which his entire life and work revolved.
Jonathan Swift’s grandfather, Thomas Swift, was a parish priest in Goodrich. He lived modestly, but despite having a large family, he maintained a decent standard of living. He was a devoted supporter of the King and was prepared to sacrifice his last resources. Once, the governor of the town where he lived asked him to donate something for the common good. The vicar took off his outer garment and handed it over. “Your coat is too insignificant a donation,” the governor replied. “In that case,” said the vicar, “take my waistcoat.” Inside it were sewn three hundred old gold coins — a significant donation for a poor, utterly ruined parish priest.
Jonathan Swift, the father of the future great satirist, went to Ireland after the death of his own father, where his brother Godwin had already made a fortune. At the age of 18, Jonathan married Abigail Erick, from an old Leicestershire family. Having secured a position as steward of the royal inns in Dublin, he ensured a modest but steady income. He had hoped for career advancement, but passed away, leaving his wife with a young daughter and another child yet to be born. Jonathan Swift was born on the 30th of November 1667, seven months after his father’s death, and thus never knew him.
The house in which Swift was born, 1865
Swift lost the care and affection of his mother, a kind, cheerful, and somewhat witty woman, at a very early age. He was just a year old when his nurse, without permission, took him with her back to her homeland in England, where he stayed for three whole years. During this time, Swift learned his first letters; by the time his mother reclaimed him, he could already read the Gospel.
Upon returning to Ireland, Swift didn’t live with his mother for long. At the age of six, his uncle Godwin sent him to Kilkenny School, one of the best schools at the time. From that point onwards, Swift's family, in effect, ceased to exist for him, and he grew up more or less like a complete orphan. He knew his uncle was wealthy, but he saw him as miserly, believing that any support he received was reluctantly given, simply because he was the nearest relative.
Trinity College Dublin, 1837
At fourteen, Swift entered Trinity College in Dublin. He was far from being an outstanding student. He had a strong dislike for certain subjects, such as metaphysics and scholastic logic, but he applied himself diligently to the study of the classics. At his final examination, he received the following marks: in physics — poor, in Latin and Greek — good, in composition — careless. These grades didn’t qualify him to take the bachelor's exam, which was a scholastic disputation, but at that time there was a practice of allowing students in such cases to take the exam "by special grace," as it was then called.
Deprived of the warm, nurturing influence of his family and left to his own struggles, Swift had already come to appreciate the value of independence and financial security while still at college.
Jonathan Swift by Thomas Pooley, 1682
One day during his studies, feeling particularly low due to financial difficulties, Swift looked out of his window and saw a sailor, who appeared to be looking for him. His intuition was correct: the sailor entered his room and handed him a purse, tightly packed with money, saying it was a gift from his cousin Willoughby, who was then trading in Lisbon. Swift thanked the messenger warmly and offered him some of the money as a reward, but the sailor declined. This marked the first significant gift Swift had ever received, and it taught him the value of money. The purse became a reliable source of financial aid during tough times.
Swift’s graduation coincided with a period of major events in Ireland. James II had fled England and was seeking support from his loyal Catholic followers. Under such circumstances, there were no prospects for Swift in Ireland. Upon arriving in England, he went straight to see his mother, who was living in Leicester, but she had no standing and survived on £20 a year. He needed to find work. Swift became a servant to a distant relative, Sir William Temple.
William Temple by Peter Lely, 1660
Temple had held a prominent position under the Stuarts, playing a key role in important state matters, conducting diplomatic negotiations, and more. He wasn’t an idealist in any sense, though he did have political views, which he pursued in his work, though not at the cost of sacrificing anything of significance. Temple was well-educated, widely read, had an air of grandeur and outward brilliance, but lacked a great heart or strong intellect. He lived in his estate at Moor Park, Farnham, where he was frequently visited by King William, who sought his counsel as an experienced politician. In this way, Temple continued to hold a high status.
Swift's position, in the beginning, was far from enviable: he read to his patron, wrote for him, kept his accounts, and generally performed all the duties of a senior valet.
The room at Moor Park where Jonathan Swift, Secretary to Sir William Temple, engaged on his literary labours
Discontent was growing on both sides, and an open break seemed inevitable, but fate intervened. Swift began to suffer from bouts of dizziness and deafness, ailments that would plague him for the rest of his life, and the doctors advised him to return home to Ireland for treatment. As a result, his departure wasn’t accompanied by any quarrel, and Temple even provided him with a letter of recommendation to the secretary of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. However, Swift was unable to secure a position in Ireland and soon returned to England, back to Moor Park. Temple helped him obtain a Master’s degree from Oxford University.
Engraving (1703) of King William III and his wife Queen Mary who shared the English monarchy in the late 17th century
It was around this time that Swift had meetings and conversations with William III, whom he accompanied on his walks in the garden at Moor Park. During these walks, Swift came into contact with the very people shaping the course of European history. He had the chance to observe them closely, study their characters and manners, and assess their abilities. This provided him with a wealth of knowledge. As Valentin Yakovenko describes, Swift was struck by the astounding contrast between the inner insignificance of these men and the immense power they wielded — a contrast that fuelled his biting satire.
In 1693, Swift had the opportunity to test himself in the political arena. At the time, there was intense agitation in favour of limiting parliamentary terms to three years, and a corresponding bill had been introduced. William III, unfamiliar with English history, hesitated to give his approval and considered vetoing it, fearing that a similar bill had led to the downfall of Charles I. The public outcry unsettled him, so he sought advice from Temple and sent his minister, Lord Portland, to consult him. However, Portland, like William, misunderstood the true nature of the English Revolution, which had made any royal veto an anachronism, nor did he grasp the importance of the bill in question.
Temple decided to send Swift to the king, entrusting him with the task of clarifying the situation and persuading the king not to oppose the bill. However, this first political experience ended in deep disappointment. The mission was a failure: the king did not heed Swift’s arguments, though the bill was temporarily postponed.
In the realm of literature, Swift’s early efforts were equally unsuccessful. In response to his Pindaric odes, dedicated to Archbishop Sancroft, Temple, and William III, John Dryden, the literary dictator of the time and Swift’s relative, remarked, “Cousin Swift, you will never be a poet.”
When Temple offered Swift a minor post with a salary of £120 a year at the Dublin archives, he declined and made his way to Ireland on his own. There, Swift took holy orders in 1695 and was appointed to the parish of Kilroot, with a stipend of about £100 a year. At that time, the position of the Anglican Church in Ireland was extremely poor. It had not yet recovered from the devastation caused by the recent unrest. Much of its property had fallen into the hands of laypeople, the clergy were impoverished, and many priests lived in dire poverty. Numerous parishes were vacant, congregations were scattered, and the poor and helpless, who had once been under the care of the church, were left without shelter. Kilroot was a remote and isolated parish.
Swift soon left Kilroot, returned to Moor Park, and resumed his intense reading, often spending 16 hours a day with a book. He mostly focused on history. Swift lived at Moor Park for several more years. In 1699, William Temple passed away, and in his will, he entrusted Swift with the task of publishing his works.
The harsh civil war in England, which ended with the execution of King Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of new bourgeois orders, the bitter religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, marked by extreme fanaticism and intolerance, the constant wars that ravaged whole regions of Europe, such as the War of the Spanish Succession (1707-1714), and the ongoing power struggle between the two political parties, the Tories and the Whigs, who used any means necessary—all of this seemed to some thinkers to be the natural outcome of the progress of human society and did not shake their belief in the future. Many of Swift's contemporaries believed that if people were simply shown what was good for them, enlightened, and given a clear understanding of things, everything would fall into place. In the 18th century, such people were called the Enlightenment thinkers.
King Louis XIV of France proclaiming Philip, duc d'Anjou, to be king of Spain in 1700, chromolithograph, 19th century
The state of affairs under William, Anne, and the early Georges was equally dire. Swift did not need to invent his repulsive Yahoos—he saw them in real life, in many different forms. The people's most base passions were always on the verge of bursting out. Years of bloody uprisings and civil wars had left the populace prone to violence, vigilantism, and brawls. The introduction of gin in 1684 had greatly contributed to widespread drunkenness. In this unhealthy social atmosphere, the distant rumblings of rebellion were constantly heard. "Money is held in the highest regard here," wrote Montesquieu, "while honour and virtue are worth very little… An Englishman requires a good meal, a woman, and comfort… In England, there is no religion; if someone spoke of it here, they would be laughed at." Even the most prominent statesmen—such as the Duke of Marlborough, ministers Bolingbroke, and Walpole—were involved in the scandals of their time (like the South Sea Company).
When assessing Swift's political pamphlets, satires, and his political activity in general, two key points must be considered. Firstly, throughout his life, Swift was a staunch defender of the Anglican Church and its privileges. Whether in the small sphere as a parish priest and later a dean, or in the larger sphere, taking an active role in the Tory ministry and electrifying the entire country with his pamphlets, he never forgot his role as a churchman. Secondly, he upheld the principles of the Glorious Revolution of 1688—principles embodied in the famous Habeas Corpus Act, which laid the foundation for the development of free institutions in England.
In the early days, Swift aligned himself with the Whig camp and wrote his first political pamphlet in their defence. This work, titled A Discourse Concerning the Contests of Athens and Rome, discusses the party divisions that plagued Greece and Rome, while implicitly addressing the contemporary clashes between the Whigs and Tories. The treatise dates back to 1701, a time when the struggle between these two factions had escalated into open discord between the two houses of Parliament. The catalyst for this discord was the issue of lands confiscated in Ireland due to the recent Jacobite uprising and redistributed by William to various German favourites. The House of Commons, dominated by the Tories, was outraged, passing a bill to reclaim the lands from the royal favourites and deciding to initiate proceedings against some of the most prominent Whigs in the ministry. Conversely, the House of Lords, where the Whigs held the majority, opposed both the bill and the pursuit of their rivals. This disagreement spiralled into outright conflict, threatening to lead to civil war.
Soon after the pamphlet's publication, events dramatically shifted public sentiment and the balance of power between the opposing parties. In 1701, James II died in France, and Louis XIV acknowledged his son as the rightful king of England, given Parliament's decision that if William had no children, the throne should pass to his wife’s sister, Anne. Unsurprisingly, public opinion in England was outrageously inflamed by this unsolicited intervention from the French king. William, as the defender of popular freedom, and the Whigs, as supporters of the new dynasty, regained the public’s trust, while the Tories, perpetually suspected of clandestine dealings and Jacobite conspiracies, were forced to retreat in disgrace.
Although Swift published his treatise anonymously, it quickly became known in political circles who the author was, and the leading Whigs, such as Somers and Vernon, expressed their approval and goodwill towards him. From this point on, Swift began to frequent London more regularly, spending varying lengths of time there. He gradually established extensive connections in both political and literary circles and visited various restaurants, where his peculiar behaviour caught the attention of those around him.
He easily navigated through all layers of society. Through the Viceroys of Ireland, with whom he maintained regular contact, as well as through connections made back in Moor Park, he gained access to various aristocratic households. With Anne's ascension to the throne in 1702, a cabinet formed under the influence of Marlborough, which, while considered Whig, was in reality a mix of factions. The renowned general Marlborough played a leading role, relying on the Whigs since they were supporters of the war and, thus, his natural allies. In the House of Commons, the Tory majority still prevailed, while the Whigs held sway in the House of Lords.
Around this time (1704), his famous Tale of a Tub was published, along with a series of pamphlets written by Swift in defence of the Anglican Church and its privileges. These pamphlets established the position he was bound to occupy in the struggle between the Tories and the Whigs.
Swift always regarded himself as a true Whig and claimed that he attacked them to defend genuinely Whig principles. However, he undoubtedly had little in common with the Whigs of that era. The real difference between the Whigs and Tories at that time was de facto: the former represented the middle class, "moneyed people," and dissenters, while the latter comprised landowners and the church. Once this became clear to Swift, he could no longer hesitate; he had to align himself with those who recognised the interests of the church.
The War of the Spanish Succession weighed heavily on everyone; it was exceedingly costly, with taxes and prices soaring uncontrollably, leading to a severe agricultural crisis. Discontent over the war was palpable even among the Whigs. Suddenly, the ecclesiastical question intensified, unexpectedly leading to the collapse of the Whig party. The priest Sacheverell called on society to pay attention to the church's plight. His speeches, passionate and fiery, though not entirely rational, made a significant impact. The ministry, considering itself strong enough and wanting to seize the opportunity to intimidate its enemies, decided to pursue legal action against Sacheverell. However, this only created a martyr for the church in the eyes of the masses. The previously unknown priest's popularity soared unexpectedly, and public outrage began to surface. Petitions were sent to the queen urging her to defend the religion. The convened Parliament was dominated by the Tories, and since 1710, the Tory Harley, later the Earl of Oxford, took the helm of the government.
The years of Tory rule (1710–1714) marked a peak in Swift's political activity, despite him holding no formal position, large or small.
At the end of 1710, Swift began writing for the Tory newspaper Examiner, contributing until mid the following year. The position of the Tories was quite precarious; they had to discredit the Whigs in public opinion while maintaining unity within their ranks. Swift directed his articles against both principles and individuals. He was unconcerned with eloquence or logic, and even truth mattered little to him; he aimed to strike his enemy with a precisely targeted blow, using all means at his disposal—mockery, derision, and outright contempt—to ultimately triumph. He contrasted the "moneyed people" with the agricultural class, criticizing the Whigs for siding with various speculators and bankers, sacrificing the interests and prosperity of the country to them. The Tories could not feel secure while the war continued and the victorious Marlborough led the army. Swift often launched attacks against him in the Examiner, never naming him directly but describing him in such detail that everyone could guess who was being referred to.
He published the pamphlet The Conduct of the Allies. Due to his position, he was able to utilize official documents and shed light on the motives of those who sought war. Swift rebuked the fools who considered the "echo of the London coffeehouse" to be the "voice of the entire kingdom." The pamphlet was extraordinarily successful. Published on November 27, it was already in its second edition by December 1, which sold out in four hours. Within two months, 11,000 copies were sold. Marlborough lost his popularity and was removed from his positions and titles. In April 1713, news of the peace settlement reached England.
Despite all the services he had rendered to the Tory government, Queen Anne did not deem it appropriate to grant Swift the ecclesiastical position he sought, as she considered the tone of his pamphlets—especially A Tale of a Tub—too irreverent.
We began already to converse together in some sort; and the first words I learnt, were to express my desire “that he would please give me my liberty;” which I every day repeated on my knees. His answer, as I could comprehend it, was, “that this must be a work of time, not to be thought on without the advice of his council, and that first I must lumos kelmin pesso desmar lon emposo;” that is, swear a peace with him and his kingdom.
Gulliver's Travels, Chapter II
This is why his hero, Gulliver, who captured the entire fleet of Blefuscu and thus secured victory for the Lilliputian monarch, was ultimately rewarded—under the queen's influence—by being blinded and condemned to a painful death. Gulliver, it is true, extinguished the fire in her chambers in a rather unconventional way, which the queen deemed a daring and reprehensible act. Through this sarcastic episode, Swift clearly intended to convey: when your house is ablaze and your very existence is at stake, does it really matter what means are used to achieve salvation?
The disagreements between Harley and Bolingbroke threatened the Tory cabinet's survival. Swift remarked, "If you come to an agreement, everything else can be fixed in two minutes; if not, the ministry will perish within two months." No sooner had Swift arrived in Dublin than he received a letter expressing regret that he was not in London, stating that he would be extremely useful at this moment, and that only he could persuade the ministers of the dire consequences of their discord. Soon after, he was informed directly: "The Lord Treasurer wishes you to hurry here as soon as possible: you are extremely needed."
Dublin greeted the new dean with pamphlets, street mockery, and whistles, prompting him to leave the city shortly after his arrival. The main subjects of party disputes now revolved around the conditions of the Treaty of Utrecht, trade agreements, and the question of succession, as Queen Anne was nearing her end and, in the absence of a direct heir, the "ghost of the pretender" (the Stuart) once again troubled public opinion.
Title page of the 1735 Works
Swift's prediction came true: the ministry collapsed. First, Harley was removed, and Bolingbroke seemed to triumph; but within a few days, the queen's death ended the reign of the Tory party. The victory of the Whigs was accompanied by severe persecution of the Tories. Harley was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower, while Bolingbroke fled to France, and Ormond did as well.
Swift never loved Ireland or the Irish, and the thought of defending an oppressed nation never crossed his mind. If he eventually emerged as an Irish patriot and a fighter for the freedom of the Irish people, as Valentin Yakovenko believes, it was driven by his hatred for the Whigs and his struggle against Walpole's ministry. Initially, he aimed to defend only the privileges of the Irish church against the administration's attempts to transform it into a compliant instrument of its dictates.
The people of Ireland, who are certainly the most loyal subjects in the world, cannot but conceive that most of these hardships have been the consequence of some unfortunate representations (at least) in former times; and the whole body of the gentry feel the effects in a very sensible part, being utterly destitute of all means to make provision for their younger sons, either in the Church, the law, the revenue, or (of late) in the army; and, in the desperate condition of trade, it is equally vain to think of making them merchants. All they have left is, at the expiration of leases, to rack their tenants, which they have done to such a degree, that there is not one farmer in a hundred through the kingdom who can afford shoes or stockings to his children, or to eat flesh, or drink anything better than sour milk or water, twice in a year; so that the whole country, except the Scottish plantation in the north, is a scene of misery and desolation hardly to be matched on this side of Lapland
"The present miserable state of Ireland" by Jonathan Swift